Airbus is taking an additional 300 million euros in charges on its space projects as it continues talks with two other European companies about combining their satellite businesses.
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CoRe Flow Controls combine legacy expertise with high volume production to support launch vehicle applications in commercial space sector. MONTVILLE, N.J. — February 19, 2025 — Marotta Controls, a rapidly […]
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HELSINKI — The spacecraft for China’s Tianwen-2 combined near-Earth asteroid sample return and comet rendezvous mission has arrived at Xichang spaceport for launch preparations. The Tianwen-2 spacecraft arrived at Xichang […]
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Building space policy is hard enough. It’s harder when trying to make a future-focused policy decision based on abstract concepts. That’s really the problem with the space critical infrastructure conversation, […]
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NASA’s associate administrator will leave the agency at the end of the week as uncertainty continues about the timing and scope of potential job cuts.
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In this week's episode of Space Minds meet Lee Rosen who reflects on his SpaceX tenure, co-founding ThinkOrbital and where the industry is headed.
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How did you get interested in particle physics?
I studied physics at Oxford University and I was the first person in my family to go to university. I then completed a DPhil at Oxford in 1991 studying cosmic rays and neutrinos. In 1992 I moved to University College London as a research fellow. That was the first time I went to CERN and two years later I began working on the Large Electron-Positron Collider, which was the predecessor of the Large Hadron Collider. I was fortunate enough to work on some of the really big measurements of the W and Z bosons and electroweak unification, so it was a great time in my life. In 2000 I worked at the University of Cambridge where I set up a neutrino group. It was then that I began working at Fermilab – the US’s premier particle physics lab.
So you flipped from collider physics to neutrinos physics?
Over the past 20 years, I have oscillated between them and sometimes have done both in parallel. Probably the biggest step forward was in 2013 when I became spokesperson for the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment – a really fascinating, challenging and ambitious project. In 2018 I was then appointed executive chair of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) — one of the main UK funding agencies. The STFC funds particle physics and astronomy in the UK and maintains relationships with organisations such as CERN, the Square Kilometre Array Observatory as well as operating some of the UK’s biggest national infrastructures such as the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and the Daresbury Laboratory.
What did that role involve?
It covered strategic funding of particle physics and astronomy in the UK and also involved running a very large scientific organization with about 2800 scientific, technical and engineering staff. It was very good preparation for the role as CERN director-general.
What attracted you to become CERN director-general?
CERN is such an important part of the global particle-physics landscape. But I don’t think there was ever a moment where I just thought “Oh, I must do this”. I’ve spent six years on the CERN Council, so I know the organization well. I realized I had all of the tools to do the job – a combination of the science, knowing the organization and then my experience in previous roles. CERN has been a large part of my life for many years, so it’s a fantastic opportunity for me.
What were your first thoughts when you heard you had got the role?
It was quite a surreal moment. My first thoughts were “Well, OK, that’s fun”, so it didn’t really sink in until the evening. I’m obviously very happy and it was fantastic news but it was almost a feeling of “What happens now?”.
What so does happen now as CERN director-general designate?
There will be a little bit of shadowing, but you can’t shadow someone for the whole year, that doesn’t make very much sense. So what I really have to do is understand the organization, how it works from the inside and, of course, get to know the fantastic CERN staff, which I’ve already started doing. A lot of my time at the moment is meeting people and understanding how things work.
How might you do things differently?
I don’t think I will do anything too radical. I will have a look at where we can make things work better. But my priority for now is putting in place the team that will work with me from January. That’s quite a big chunk of work.
We have a decision to make on what comes after the High Luminosity-LHC in the mid-2040s
What do you think your leadership style will be?
I like to put around me a strong leadership team and then delegate and trust the leadership team to deliver. I’m there to set the strategic direction but also to empower them to deliver. That means I can take an outward focus and engage with the member states to promote CERN. I think my leadership style is to put in place a culture where the staff can thrive and operate in a very open and transparent way. That’s very important to me because it builds trust both within the organization and with CERN’s partners. The final thing is that I’m 100% behind CERN being an inclusive organization.
So diversity is an important aspect for you?
I am deeply committed to diversity and CERN is deeply committed to it in all its forms, and that will not change. This is a common value across Europe: our member states absolutely see diversity as being critical, and it means a lot to our scientific communities as well. From a scientific point of view, if we’re not supporting diversity, we’re losing people who are no different from others who come from more privileged backgrounds. Also, diversity at CERN has a special meaning: it means all the normal protected characteristics, but also national diversity. CERN is a community of 24 member states and quite a few associate member states, and ensuring nations are represented is incredibly important. It’s the way you do the best science, ultimately, and it’s the right thing to do.
The LHC is undergoing a £1bn upgrade towards a High Luminosity-LHC (HL-LHC), what will that entail?
The HL-LHC is a big step up in terms of capability and the goal will be to increase the luminosity of the machine. We are also upgrading the detectors to make them even more precise. The HL-LHC will run from about 2030 to the early 2040s. So by the end of LHC operations, we would have only taken about 10% of the overall data set once you add what the HL-LHC is expected to produce.
What physics will that allow?
There’s a very specific measurement that we would like to make around the nature of the Higgs mechanism. There’s something very special about the Higgs boson that it has a very strange vacuum potential, so it’s always there in the vacuum. With the HL-LHC, we’re going to start to study the structure of that potential. That’s a really exciting and fundamental measurement and it’s a place where we might start to see new physics.
Beyond the HL-LHC, you will also be involved in planning what comes next. What are the options?
We have a decision to make on what comes after the HL-LHC in the mid-2040s. It seems a long way off but these projects need a 20-year lead-in. I think the consensus amongst the scientific community for a number of years has been that the next machine must explore the Higgs boson. The motivation for a Higgs factory is incredibly strong.
Yet there has not been much consensus whether that should be a linear or circular machine?
My personal view is that a circular collider is the way forward. One option is the Future Circular Collider (FCC) – a 91 km circumference collider that would be built at CERN.
What would the benefits of the FCC be?
We know how to build circular colliders and it gives you significantly more capability than a linear machine by producing more Higgs bosons. It is also a piece of research infrastructure that will be there for many years beyond the electron-positron collider. The other aspect is that at some point in the future, we are going to want a high-energy hadron collider to explore the unknown.
But it won’t come cheap, with estimates being about £12-15bn for the electron-positron version, dubbed FCC-ee?
While the price tag for the FCC-ee is significant, that is spread over 24 member states for 15 years and contributions can also come from elsewhere. I’m not saying it’s going to be easy to actually secure that jigsaw puzzle of resource, because money will need to come from outside Europe as well.
China is also considering the Circular Electron Positron Collider (CEPC) that could, if approved, be built by the 2030s. What would happen to the FCC if the CEPC were to go ahead?
I think that will be part of the European Strategy for Particle Physics, which will happen throughout this year, to think about the ifs and buts. Of course, nothing has really been decided in China. It’s a big project and it might not go ahead. I would say it’s quite easy to put down aggressive timescales on paper but actually delivering them is always harder. The big advantage of CERN is that we have the scientific and engineering heritage in building colliders and operating them. There is only one CERN in the world.
What do you make of alternative technologies such as muon colliders that could be built in the existing LHC tunnel and offer high energies?
It’s an interesting concept but technically we don’t know how to do it. There’s a lot of development work but it’s going to take a long time to turn that into a real machine. So looking at a muon collider on the time scale of the mid-2040s is probably unrealistic. What is critical for an organization like CERN and for global particle physics is that when the HL-LHC stops by 2040, there’s not a large gap without a collider project.
Last year CERN celebrated its 70th anniversary, what do you think particle physics might look like in the next 70 years?
If you look back at the big discoveries over the last 30 years we’ve seen neutrino oscillations, the Higgs boson, gravitational waves and dark energy. That’s four massive discoveries. In the coming decade we will know a lot more about the nature of the neutrino and the Higgs boson via the HL-LHC. The big hope is we find something else that we don’t expect.
The post Incoming CERN director-general Mark Thomson outlines his future priorities appeared first on Physics World.
A new “sneeze simulator” could help scientists understand how respiratory illnesses such as COVID-19 and influenza spread. Built by researchers at the Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV) in Spain, the simulator is a three-dimensional model that incorporates a representation of the nasal cavity as well as other parts of the human upper respiratory tract. According to the researchers, it should help scientists to improve predictive models for respiratory disease transmission in indoor environments, and could even inform the design of masks and ventilation systems that mitigate the effects of exposure to pathogens.
For many respiratory illnesses, pathogen-laden aerosols expelled when an infected person coughs, sneezes or even breathes are important ways of spreading disease. Our understanding of how these aerosols disperse has advanced in recent years, mainly through studies carried out during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Some of these studies deployed techniques such as spirometry and particle imaging to characterize the distributions of particle sizes and airflow when we cough and sneeze. Others developed theoretical models that predict how clouds of particles will evolve after they are ejected and how droplet sizes change as a function of atmospheric humidity and composition.
To build on this work, the UVR researchers sought to understand how the shape of the nasal cavity affects these processes. They argue that neglecting this factor leads to an incomplete understanding of airflow dynamics and particle dispersion patterns, which in turn affects the accuracy of transmission modelling. As evidence, they point out that studies focused on sneezing (which occurs via the nose) and coughing (which occurs primarily via the mouth) detected differences in how far droplets travelled, the amount of time they stayed in the air and their pathogen-carrying potential – all parameters that feed into transmission models. The nasal cavity also affects the shape of the particle cloud ejected, which has previously been found to influence how pathogens spread.
The challenge they face is that the anatomy of the naval cavity varies greatly from person to person, making it difficult to model. However, the UVR researchers say that their new simulator, which is based on realistic 3D printed models of the upper respiratory tract and nasal cavity, overcomes this limitation, precisely reproducing the way particles are produced when people cough and sneeze.
One of the features that allows the simulator to do this is a variable nostril opening. This enables the researchers to control air flow through the nasal cavity, and thus to replicate different sneeze intensities. The simulator also controls the strength of exhalations, meaning that the team could investigate how this and the size of nasal airways affects aerosol cloud dispersion.
During their experiments, which are detailed in Physics of Fluids, the UVR researchers used high-speed cameras and a laser beam to observe how particles disperse following a sneeze. They studied three airflow rates typical of coughs and sneezes and monitored what happened with and without nasal cavity flow. Based on these measurements, they used a well-established model to predict the range of the aerosol cloud produced.
“We found that nasal exhalation disperses aerosols more vertically and less horizontally, unlike mouth exhalation, which projects them toward nearby individuals,” explains team member Salvatore Cito. “While this reduces direct transmission, the weaker, more dispersed plume allows particles to remain suspended longer and become more uniformly distributed, increasing overall exposure risk.”
These findings have several applications, Cito says. For one, the insights gained could be used to improve models used in epidemiology and indoor air quality management.
“Understanding how nasal exhalation influences aerosol dispersion can also inform the design of ventilation systems in public spaces, such as hospitals, classrooms and transportation systems to minimize airborne transmission risks,” he tells Physics World.
The results also suggest that protective measures such as masks should be designed to block both nasal and oral exhalations, he says, adding that full-face coverage is especially important in high-risk settings.
The researchers’ next goal is to study the impact of environmental factors such as humidity and temperature on aerosol dispersion. Until now, such experiments have only been carried out under controlled isothermal conditions, which does not reflect real-world situations. “We also plan to integrate our experimental findings with computational fluid dynamics simulations to further refine protective models for respiratory aerosol dispersion,” Cito reveals.
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Defense Secretary Pete Hegseth has initiated a review to identify offsets from the Biden administration’s fiscal year 2026 budget proposal.
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Confusion lingers over the roles of the U.S. Space Force, U.S. Space Command and intelligence agencies
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OQ Technology said Feb. 19 it could receive up to €17.5 million ($18.2 million) from a European Union-backed accelerator to support efforts to connect smartphones via its small satellite constellation.
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The Space Force, still in its infancy at five years old, must overcome systemic issues, including inadequate resources, unclear roles, and a lack of warfighting ethos, says a new report by the Mitchell Institute for Aerospace Studies
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President Donald Trump and SpaceX Chief Executive Elon Musk reiterated claims in a televised interview that NASA astronauts were “abandoned” on the ISS.
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Physicists in Austria have shown that the static electricity acquired by identical material samples can evolve differently over time, based on each samples’ history of contact with other samples. Led by Juan Carlos Sobarzo and Scott Waitukaitis at the Institute of Science and Technology Austria, the team hope that their experimental results could provide new insights into one of the oldest mysteries in physics.
Static electricity – also known as contact electrification or triboelectrification — has been studied for centuries. However, physicists still do not understand some aspects of how it works.
“It’s a seemingly simple effect,” Sobarzo explains. “Take two materials, make them touch and separate them, and they will have exchanged electric charge. Yet, the experiments are plagued by unpredictability.”
This mystery is epitomized by an early experiment carried out by the German-Swedish physicist Johan Wilcke in 1757. When glass was touched to paper, Wilcke found that glass gained a positive charge – while when paper was touched to sulphur, it would itself become positively charged.
Wilcke concluded that glass will become positively charged when touched to sulphur. This concept formed the basis of the triboelectric series, which ranks materials according to the charge they acquire when touched to another material.
Yet in the intervening centuries, the triboelectric series has proven to be notoriously inconsistent. Despite our vastly improved knowledge of material properties since the time of Wilcke’s experiments, even the latest attempts at ordering materials into triboelectric series have repeatedly failed to hold up to experimental scrutiny.
According to Sobarzo’s and colleagues, this problem has been confounded by the diverse array of variables associated with a material’s contact electrification. These include its electronic properties, pH, hydrophobicity, and mechanochemistry, to name just a few.
In their new study, the team approached the problem from a new perspective. “In order to reduce the number of variables, we decided to use identical materials,” Sobarzo describes. “Our samples are made of a soft polymer (PDMS) that I fabricate myself in the lab, cut from a single piece of material.”
For these identical materials, the team proposed that triboelectric properties could evolve over time as the samples were brought into contact with other, initially identical samples. If this were the case, it would allow the team to build a triboelectric series from scratch.
At first, the results seemed as unpredictable as ever. However, as the same set of samples underwent repeated contacts, the team found that their charging behaviour became more consistent, gradually forming a clear triboelectric series.
Initially, the researchers attempted to uncover correlations between this evolution and variations in the parameters of each sample – with no conclusive results. This led them to consider whether the triboelectric behaviour of each sample was affected by the act of contact itself.
“Once we started to keep track of the contact history of our samples – that is, the number of times each sample has been contacted to others–the unpredictability we saw initially started to make sense,” Sobarzo explains. “The more contacts samples would have in their history, the more predictable they would behave. Not only that, but a sample with more contacts in its history will consistently charge negative against a sample with less contacts in its history.”
To explain the origins of this history-dependent behaviour, the team used a variety of techniques to analyse differences between the surfaces of uncontacted samples, and those which had already been contacted several times. Their measurements revealed just one difference between samples at different positions on the triboelectric series. This was their nanoscale surface roughness, which smoothed out as the samples experienced more contacts.
“I think the main take away is the importance of contact history and how it can subvert the widespread unpredictability observed in tribocharging,” Sobarzo says. “Contact is necessary for the effect to happen, it’s part of the name ‘contact electrification’, and yet it’s been widely overlooked.”
The team is still uncertain of how surface roughness could be affecting their samples’ place within the triboelectric series. However, their results could now provide the first steps towards a comprehensive model that can predict a material’s triboelectric properties based on its contact-induced surface roughness.
Sobarzo and colleagues are hopeful that such a model could enable robust methods for predicting the charges which any given pair of materials will acquire as they touch each other and separate. In turn, it may finally help to provide a solution to one of the most long-standing mysteries in physics.
The research is described in Nature.
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In February 2025, the United States Executive Branch invoked an emergency under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act and determined that tariffs on imports would be implemented in the near […]
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The company also selected Long Beach for its deep aerospace talent pool
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Since the Soviet era, few sectors have evoked as much pride among Russians as their space achievements, which stand as a symbol of the nation’s glory and technological prowess. However, […]
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NASA did not carry out a widely expected layoff of 1,000 or more employees Feb. 18, but the last-minute reprieve may only be temporary.
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A photothermal, nanoparticle-based deep brain stimulation (DBS) system has successfully reversed the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease in laboratory mice. Under development by researchers in Beijing, China, the injectable, wireless DBS not only reversed neuron degeneration, but also boosted dopamine levels by clearing out the buildup of harmful fibrils around dopamine neurons. Following DBS treatment, diseased mice exhibited near comparable locomotive behaviour to that of healthy control mice.
Parkinson’s disease is a chronic brain disorder characterized by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons and the subsequent loss of dopamine in regions of the brain. Current DBS treatments focus on amplifying dopamine signalling and production, and may require permanent implantation of electrodes in the brain. Another approach under investigation is optogenetics, which involves gene modification. Both techniques increase dopamine levels and reduce Parkinsonian motor symptoms, but they do not restore degenerated neurons to stop disease progression.
The research team, at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, hypothesized that the heat-sensitive receptor TRPV1, which is highly expressed in dopamine neurons, could serve as a modulatory target to activate dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain. This region contains a large concentration of dopamine neurons and plays a crucial role in how the brain controls bodily movement.
Previous studies have shown that neuron degeneration is mainly driven by α-synuclein (α-syn) fibrils aggregating in the substantia nigra. Successful treatment, therefore, relies on removing this build up, which requires restarting of the intracellular autophagic process (in which a cell breaks down and removes unnecessary or dysfunctional components).
As such, principal investigator Chunying Chen and colleagues aimed to develop a therapeutic system that could reduce α-syn accumulation by simultaneously disaggregating α-syn fibrils and initiating the autophagic process. Their three-component DBS nanosystem, named ATB (Au@TRPV1@β-syn), combines photothermal gold nanoparticles, dopamine neuron-activating TRPV1 antibodies, and β-synuclein (β-syn) peptides that break down α-syn fibrils.
The ATB nanoparticles anchor to dopamine neurons through the TRPV1 receptor then, acting as nanoantennae, convert pulsed near-infrared (NIR) irradiation into heat. This activates the heat-sensitive TRPV1 receptor and restores degenerated dopamine neurons. At the same time, the nanoparticles release β-syn peptides that clear out α-syn fibril buildup and stimulate intracellular autophagy.
The researchers first tested the system in vitro in cellular models of Parkinson’s disease. They verified that under NIR laser irradiation, ATB nanoparticles activate neurons through photothermal stimulation by acting on the TRPV1 receptor, and that the nanoparticles successfully counteracted the α-syn preformed fibril (PFF)-induced death of dopamine neurons. In cell viability assays, neuron death was reduced from 68% to zero following ATB nanoparticle treatment.
Next, Chen and colleagues investigated mice with PFF-induced Parkinson’s disease. The DBS treatment begins with stereotactic injection of the ATB nanoparticles directly into the substantia nigra. They selected this approach over systemic administration because it provides precise targeting, avoids the blood–brain barrier and achieves a high local nanoparticle concentration with a low dose – potentially boosting treatment effectiveness.
Following injection of either nanoparticles or saline, the mice underwent pulsed NIR irradiation once a week for five weeks. The team then performed a series of tests to assess the animals’ motor abilities (after a week of training), comparing the performance of treated and untreated PFF mice, as well as healthy control mice. This included the rotarod test, which measures the time until the animal falls from a rotating rod that accelerates from 5 to 50 rpm over 5 min, and the pole test, which records the time for mice to crawl down a 75 cm-long pole.
The team also performed an open field test to evaluate locomotive activity and exploratory behaviour. Here, mice are free to move around a 50 x 50 cm area, while their movement paths and the number of times they cross a central square are recorded. In all tests, mice treated with nanoparticles and irradiation significantly outperformed untreated controls, with near comparable performance to that of healthy mice.
Visualizing the dopamine neurons via immunohistochemistry revealed a reduction in neurons in PFF-treated mice compared with controls. This loss was reversed following nanoparticle treatment. Safety assessments determined that the treatment did not cause biochemical toxicity and that the heat generated by the NIR-irradiated ATB nanoparticles did not cause any considerable damage to the dopamine neurons.
Eight weeks after treatment, none of the mice experienced any toxicities. The ATB nanoparticles remained stable in the substantia nigra, with only a few particles migrating to cerebrospinal fluid. The researchers also report that the particles did not migrate to the heart, liver, spleen, lung or kidney and were not found in blood, urine or faeces.
Chen tells Physics World that having discovered the neuroprotective properties of gold clusters in Parkinson’s disease models, the researchers are now investigating therapeutic strategies based on gold clusters. Their current research focuses on engineering multifunctional gold cluster nanocomposites capable of simultaneously targeting α-syn aggregation, mitigating oxidative stress and promoting dopamine neuron regeneration.
The study is reported in Science Advances.
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Three decades ago – in May 1995 – the British-born mathematical physicist Freeman Dyson published an article in the New York Review of Books. Entitled “The scientist as rebel”, it described how all scientists have one thing in common. No matter what their background or era, they are rebelling against the restrictions imposed by the culture in which they live.
“For the great Arab mathematician and astronomer Omar Khayyam, science was a rebellion against the intellectual constraints of Islam,” Dyson wrote. Leading Indian physicists in the 20th century, he added, were rebelling against their British colonial rulers and the “fatalistic ethic of Hinduism”. Even Dyson traced his interest in science as an act of rebellion against the drudgery of compulsory Latin and football at school.
“Science is an alliance of free spirits in all cultures rebelling against the local tyranny that each culture imposes,” he wrote. Through those acts of rebellion, scientists expose “oppressive and misguided conceptions of the world”. The discovery of evolution and of DNA changed our sense of what it means to be human, he said, while black holes and Gödel’s theorem gave us new views of the universe and the nature of mathematics.
But Dyson feared that this view of science was being occluded. Writing in the 1990s, which was a time of furious academic debate about the “social construction of science”, he feared that science’s liberating role was becoming hidden by a cabal of sociologists and philosophers who viewed scientists as like any other humans, governed by social, psychological and political motives. Dyson didn’t disagree with that view, but underlined that nature is the ultimate arbiter of what’s important.
One wonders what Dyson, who died in 2020, would make of current events were he alive today. It’s no longer just a small band of academics disputing science. Its opponents also include powerful and highly placed politicians, who are tarring scientists and scientific findings for lacking objectivity and being politically motivated. Science, they say, is politics by other means. They then use that charge to justify ignoring or openly rejecting scientific findings when creating regulations and making decisions.
Thousands of researchers, for instance, contribute to efforts by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to measure the impact and consequences of the rising amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Yet US President Donald Trump –speaking after Hurricane Helene left a trail of destruction across the south-east US last year – called climate change “one of the great scams”. Meanwhile, US chief justice John Roberts once rejected using mathematics to quantify the partisan effects of gerrymandering, calling it “sociological gobbledygook”.
In the current superheated US political climate, many scientific findings are charged with being agenda-driven rather than the outcomes of checked and peer-reviewed investigations
These attitudes are not only anti-science but also undermine democracy by sidelining experts and dissenting voices, curtailing real debate, scapegoating and harming citizens.
A worrying precedent for how things may play out in the Trump administration occurred in 2012 when North Carolina’s legislators passed House Bill 819. By prohibiting the use of models of sea-level rise to protect people living near the coast from flooding, the bill damaged the ability of state officials to protect its coastline, resources and citizens. It also prevented other officials from fulfilling their duty to advise and protect people against threats to life and property.
In the current superheated US political climate, many scientific findings are charged with being agenda-driven rather than the outcomes of checked and peer-reviewed investigations. In the first Trump administration, bills were introduced in the US Congress to stop politicians from using science produced by the Department of Energy in policies to avoid admitting the reality of climate change.
We can expect more anti-scientific efforts, if the first Trump administration is anything to go by. Dyson’s rebel alliance, it seems, now faces not just posturing academics but a Galactic Empire.
In his 1995 essay, Dyson described how scientists can be liberators by abstaining from political activity rather than militantly engaging in it. But how might he have seen them meeting this moment? Dyson would surely not see them turning away from their work to become politicians themselves. After all, it’s abstaining from politics that empowers scientists to be “in rebellion against the restrictions” in the first place. But Dyson would also see them as aware that science is not the driving force in creating policies; political implementation of scientific findings ultimately depends on politicians appreciating the authority and independence of these findings.
One of Trump’s most audacious “Presidential Actions”, made in the first week of his presidency, was to define sex. The action makes a female “a person belonging, at conception, to the sex that produces the large reproductive cell” and a male “a person belonging, at conception, to the sex that produces the small reproductive cell”. Trump ordered the government to use this “fundamental and incontrovertible reality” in all regulations.
An editorial in Nature (563 5) said that this “has no basis in science”, while cynics, citing certain biological interpretations that all human zygotes and embryos are initially effectively female, gleefully insisted that the order makes all of us female, including the new US president. For me and other Americans, Trump’s action restructures the world as it has been since Genesis.
Still, I imagine that Dyson would still see his rebels as hopeful, knowing that politicians don’t have the last word on what they are doing. For, while politicians can create legislation, they cannot legislate creation.
Sometimes rebels have to be stoic.
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In the teeth of the Arctic winter, polar-bear fur always remains free of ice – but how? Researchers in Ireland and Norway say they now have the answer, and it could have applications far beyond wildlife biology. Having traced the fur’s ice-shedding properties to a substance produced by glands near the root of each hair, the researchers suggest that chemicals found in this substance could form the basis of environmentally-friendly new anti-icing surfaces and lubricants.
The substance in the bear’s fur is called sebum, and team member Julian Carolan, a PhD candidate at Trinity College Dublin and the AMBER Research Ireland Centre, explains that it contains three major components: cholesterol, diacylglycerols and anteisomethyl-branched fatty acids. These chemicals have a similar ice adsorption profile to that of perfluoroalkyl (PFAS) polymers, which are commonly employed in anti-icing applications.
“While PFAS are very effective, they can be damaging to the environment and have been dubbed ‘forever chemicals’,” explains Carolan, the lead author of a Science Advances paper on the findings. “Our results suggest that we could replace these fluorinated substances with these sebum components.”
Carolan and colleagues obtained these results by comparing polar bear hairs naturally coated with sebum to hairs where the sebum had been removed using a surfactant found in washing-up liquid. Their experiment involved forming a 2 x 2 x 2 cm block of ice on the samples and placing them in a cold chamber. Once the ice was in place, the team used a force gauge on a track to push it off. By measuring the maximum force needed to remove the ice and dividing this by the area of the sample, they obtained ice adhesion strengths for the washed and unwashed fur.
This experiment showed that the ice adhesion of unwashed polar bear fur is exceptionally low. While the often-accepted threshold for “icephobicity” is around 100 kPa, the unwashed fur measured as little as 50 kPa. In contrast, the ice adhesion of washed (sebum-free) fur is much higher, coming in at least 100 kPa greater than the unwashed fur.
Guided by this evidence of sebum’s role in keeping the bears ice-free, the researchers’ next task was to determine its exact composition. They did this using a combination of techniques, including gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. They then used density functional theory methods to calculate the adsorption energy of the major components of the sebum. “In this way, we were able to identify which elements were responsible for the low ice adhesion we had identified,” Carolan tells Physics World.
This is not the first time that researchers have investigated animals’ anti-icing properties. A team led by Anne-Marie Kietzig at Canada’s McGill University, for example, previously found that penguin feathers also boast an impressively low ice adhesion. Team leader Bodil Holst says that she was inspired to study polar bear fur by a nature documentary that depicted the bears entering and leaving water to hunt, rolling around in the snow and sliding down hills – all while remaining ice-free. She and her colleagues collaborated with Jon Aars and Magnus Andersen of the Norwegian Polar Institute, which carries out a yearly polar bear monitoring campaign in Svalbard, Norway, to collect their samples.
As well as solving an ecological mystery and, perhaps, inspiring more sustainable new anti-icing lubricants, Carolan says the team’s work is also yielding insights into technologies developed by humans living in the Arctic. “Inuit people have long used polar bear fur for hunting stools (nikorfautaq) and sandals (tuterissat),” he explains. “It is notable that traditional preparation methods protect the sebum on the fur by not washing the hair-covered side of the skin. This maintains its low ice adhesion property while allowing for quiet movement on the ice – essential for still hunting.”
The researchers now plan to explore whether it is possible to apply the sebum components they identified to surfaces as lubricants. Another potential extension, they say, would be to pursue questions about the ice-free properties of other Arctic mammals such as reindeer, the arctic fox and wolverine. “It would be interesting to discover if these animals share similar anti-icing properties,” Carolan says. “For example, wolverine fur is used in parka ruffs by Canadian Inuit as frost formed on it can easily be brushed off.”
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