A physicist from Vilnius University in Lithuania has created a 3D-printed replica of the Sorbonne Chapel so small it fits on a human hair.
Located in Paris’s Latin Quarter, the Chapel of Sainte-Ursule de la Sorbonne is a Roman Catholic chapel and was constructed in the seventeenth century.
To create the structure, Gordon Zyla, who carries out research in light technologies at Vilnius’s Laser Research Centre, used a laser nanofabrication technique known as multiphoton 3D lithography.
“Unlike conventional 3D printing, this approach can solidify a light-sensitive material at virtually any point in space, enabling the fabrication of truly three-dimensional structures,” notes Zyla.
The length of the finished product is approximately 120 micrometres long, being 275 000 times smaller than the original yet still preserving its architectural details.
Late last week, the model was presented as a symbolic gift to Sorbonne University president Nathalie Drach-Temam during a visit to Vilnius.
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The ESS satellites are central to U.S. nuclear command, control and communications
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Damage to the spinal cord can disrupt communication between the brain and body, with potentially devastating effects. Spinal cord injuries can cause permanent loss of sensory, motor and autonomic functions, or even paralysis, and there’s currently no cure. To address this inadequacy, researchers at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden and the University of Auckland in New Zealand have developed an ultrathin bioelectric implant that improved movement in rats with spinal cord injuries.
The implant works by delivering a low-frequency pulsed electric field (EF) across the injury site – an approach that shows promise in promoting regeneration of axons (nerve fibres) and improving outcomes. Traditional EF treatments, however, rely on metal electrodes that are prone to corrosion. In this latest study, described in Nature Communications, the researchers fabricated stimulation electrodes from sputtered iridium oxide films (SIROF), which exhibit superior durability and stability to their metal counterparts.
The team further enhanced the EF treatment by placing the electrodes directly on the spinal cord to deliver stimulation directly to the injury site. Although this subdural positioning requires more invasive surgery than the epidural placement used previously, it should deliver stronger stimulation while using an order of magnitude less power than epidural electrodes.
“We chose subdural stimulation because it avoids the shunting effect of cerebrospinal fluid, which is highly conductive and can weaken the electric field when electrodes are placed epidurally,” explains co-lead researcher Lukas Matter from Chalmers University of Technology. “Subdural placement puts the electrodes directly on the spinal cord, allowing for stronger and more precise stimulation with lower current.”
Matter and collaborators tested the implants in rats with spinal cord injuries, using 200 μm diameter SIROF electrodes placed on either side of the injury site. The animals received 1 h of EF treatment daily for the first 7–11 days, and then on weekdays only for up to 12 weeks.
To compare EF treatment with natural healing (unlike humans, rats can recover after spinal cord injury), the researchers assessed the hind-limb function of both treated and non-treated rats. They found that during the first week, the non-treated group recovered faster than the treated group. From week 4 onwards, however, treated rats showed significantly improved locomotion and coordination compared with non-treated rats, indicating greater recovery of hind-limb function.
The treated rats continued to improve until the end of the study (week 12), while non-treated rats showed no further improvement after week 5. At week 12, all of the treated animals exhibited consistent coordination between front and hind limbs, compared with only 20% of non-treated rats, which struggled to move smoothly.
The team also assessed the recovery of mechanical sensation by touching the animals’ paws with a metal filament. Treated rats withdrew their paws faster than non-treated rats, suggesting a recovery of touch sensitivity – though the researchers note that this may reflect hypersensitivity.
“This indicates that the treatment supported recovery of both movement and sensation,” says co-lead researcher Bruce Harland from the University of Auckland in a press statement. “Just as importantly, our analysis confirmed that the treatment did not cause inflammation or other damage to the spinal cord, demonstrating that it was not only effective but also safe.”
To confirm the superior stability of SIROF electrodes, the researchers performed benchtop tests mimicking the in vivo treatment. The SIROF electrodes showed no signs of dysfunction or delamination, while platinum electrodes corroded and failed.
“Platinum electrodes are prone to degradation over time, especially at high charge densities, due to irreversible electrochemical reactions that cause corrosion and delamination, ultimately compromising their long-term stability,” says Matter. “SIROF enables reversible charge injection through surface-bound oxidation states, minimizing the generation of potentially toxic stimulation byproducts and enhancing their stimulation capabilities.”
In contrast with previous studies, the researchers did not see any change in axon density around the lesion site. Matter suggests some possible reasons for this finding: “The 12-week time point may have been too late to capture early signs of regeneration. The injury itself created a large cystic cavity, which may have blocked axon growth. Also, electric field treatment might improve recovery through protective or alternative mechanisms, not necessarily by promoting new axon growth”.
The researchers are now developing an enhanced version of the implant with larger electrodes based on the conductive polymer PEDOT, which enables higher charge densities without compromising biocompatibility. This will allow them to assess a broader range of field strengths and pulse durations in order to determine the optimal treatment conditions. They also plan to test the implant in larger animal models, and hope to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the locomotion improvement using ex vivo models.
As for the possibility of future clinical implementation, senior author Maria Asplund of Chalmers University envisions a temporary, possibly biodegradable, subdural implant that safely delivers low-frequency EF therapy. “This could be implanted early after spinal cord injury to support axon regrowth and reduce the follow-up damage that occurs after the injury itself,” she tells Physics World.
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Scientists in Switzerland and Japan have uncovered what they say is the first direct evidence that materials at the bottom of the Earth’s mantle flow like a massive river. This literally “ground-breaking” finding, made by comparing seismic data with laboratory studies of materials at high pressures and temperatures, could reshape our understanding of the dynamics at play deep within our planet’s interior.
For over half a century, one of the greatest unresolved mysteries in geosciences has been a phenomenon that occurs just above the boundary where the Earth’s solid mantle meets its liquid core, says Motohiko Murakami, a geophysicist at ETH Zurich who led the new research effort. Within this so-called D” layer, the velocity of seismic waves passing through the mantle abruptly increases, and no-one is entirely sure why.
This increase is known as the D” discontinuity, and one possible explanation for it is a change in the material the waves are travelling through. Indeed, in 2004, Murakami and colleagues at the Tokyo Institute of Technology’s department of earth and planetary sciences suspected they’d uncovered an explanation along just these lines.
In this earlier study, the researchers showed that perovskite – the main mineral present in the Earth’s lower mantle – transforms into a different substance known as post-perovskite under the extreme pressures and temperatures characteristic of the D” layer. Accordingly, they hypothesized that this phase change could explain the jump in the speed of seismic waves.
Nature, however, had other ideas. “In an experimental study on seismic wave speeds across the post-perovskite phase transition we conducted three years later, such a sharp increase in velocity was not observed, bringing the problem back to square one,” Murakami says.
Subsequent computer modelling revealed a subtler effect at play. According to these models, the hardness of post-perovskite materials is not fixed. Instead, it depends on the direction of the material’s crystals – and seismic waves through the material will only speed up when all the crystals point in the same direction.
In the new work, which they detail in Communications Earth & Environment, Murakami and colleagues at Tohoku University and the Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute confirmed this in a laboratory experiment for the first time. They obtained their results by placing crystals of a post-perovskite with the chemical formula MgGeO3 in a special apparatus designed to replicate the extreme pressures (around 1 million atmospheres) and temperatures (around 2500 K) found at the D” depth nearly 3000 km below the Earth’s surface. They then measured the velocity of lab-produced seismic waves sent through this material.
These measurements show that while randomly-oriented crystal samples do not reproduce the shear wave velocity jump at the D” discontinuity, crystals oriented along the (001) slip plane of the material’s lattice do. But what could make these crystals line up?
The answer, Murakami says, lies in slow, convective motions that cause the lower mantle to move at a rate of several centimetres per year. “This convection drives plate tectonics, volcanic activity and earthquakes but its effects have primarily been studied in the shallower region of the mantle,” he explains. “And until now, direct evidence of material movement in the deep mantle, nearly 3000 km beneath the surface, has remained elusive.”
Murakami explains that the post-perovskite mineral is rigid in one direction while being softer in others. “Since it naturally aligns its harder axis with the mantle flow, it effectively creates a structured arrangement at the base of the mantle,” he says.
According to Murakami, the discovery that solid (and not liquid) rock flows at this depth does more than just solve the D” layer mystery. It could also become a critical tool for identifying the locations at which large-scale mantle upwellings, or superplumes, originate. This, in turn, could provide new insights into Earth’s internal dynamics.
Building on these findings, the researchers say they now plan to further investigate the causes of superplume formation. “Superplumes are believed to trigger massive volcanic eruptions at the Earth’s surface, and their activity has shown a striking correlation — occurring just before two major mass extinction events in Earth’s history,” Murakami says.
Being able to understand – and perhaps even predict – future superplume activity could therefore “provide critical insights into the long-term survival of humanity”, he tells Physics World. “Such deep mantle processes may have profound implications for global environmental stability,” he says. “By advancing this research, we aim to uncover the mechanisms driving these extraordinary mantle events and assess their potential impact on Earth’s future.”
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Congress approved a budget reconciliation bill that includes nearly $10 billion for NASA human spaceflight programs and could also lead to the transfer of a space shuttle to Houston.
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China sent a new satellite into orbit for its experimental Shiyan series Thursday with a launch from the country’s southwest.
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In this week’s episode of Space Minds we bring you a special panel discussion on the future of commercial lunar exploration which was recorded live during the build-up to a historic moon landing.
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The European Space Agency will soon select the finalists for a competition intended to support the development of new launch vehicles by European companies.
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According to a recent white paper from the UK’s National Association of Disabled Staff Networks, 22% of working-age people in the UK have a disability compared to less than 7% of people working in science. At the upper echelons of science, only 4% of senior academic positions are filled with people with disabilities and just 1% of research grant applications to UK Research and Innovation are from researchers who disclose being disabled.
These disappointing statistics are reported in “Towards a fully inclusive environment for disabled people in STEMM” and this podcast features an interview with one of its authors – the physicist Francesca Doddato.
Based at Lancaster University, Doddato tells Physics World’s Michael Banks about the challenges facing scientists with disabilities – and calls for decision makers to engage with the issues and to remove barriers.
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Quantum computers promise to revolutionize technology, but first they must overcome decoherence: the loss of quantum information caused by environmental noise. Topological quantum computers aim to do this by storing information in protected states called Majorana modes, but identifying materials that can support these modes has proved tricky and sometimes controversial.
Researchers in the US and Ireland have now developed a method that could make it easier. Using a modified form of scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) with a superconducting tip, they built a tool that maps subtle features of a material’s internal quantum state – an achievement that could reveal which materials contain the elusive Majorana modes.
Unlike regular particles, a Majorana particle is its own antiparticle. It is also, strictly speaking, hypothetical – at least in its fundamental form. “So far, no one has definitively found this particle,” says Séamus Davis of University College Cork, who co-led the research with Dung-Hai Lee of the University of California, Berkeley. However, Davis adds, “all serious theorists believe that it should exist in our universe”.
Majorana modes are a slightly different beast. Rather than being fundamental particles, they are quasiparticle excitations that exhibit Majorana-like properties, and theory predicts that they should exist on the edges or surfaces of certain superconducting materials. But not every superconductor can host these states. The material must be topological, meaning its electrons are arranged in a special, symmetry-protected way. And unlike in most conventional superconductors, where electrons pair up with their spins pointing in opposite directions, the paired electrons in these materials have their spins aligned.
To distinguish these characteristics experimentally, Davis, Lee and colleagues invented what Davis calls “a new type of quantum microscope”. This special version of STM uses a superconducting tip to probe the surface of another superconductor. When the tip and sample interact, they produce telltale signals of so-called Andreev bound states (ABSs), which are localized quantum states that arise at boundaries, impurities or interfaces within a material.
The new microscope does more than just detect these states, however. It also lets users tweak the coupling strength between tip and sample to see how the energy of the ABS changes. This is critical, as it helps researchers determine whether the superconductor is chiral, meaning that the movement of its electron pairs has a preferred direction that doesn’t change when time runs backward. This breaking of time-reversal symmetry is characteristic of Majorana surface states. Hence, if a certain material shows both ABSs and chirality, scientists know it’s the material they’re looking for: a so-called topological superconductor.
To demonstrate the method, the team applied it to uranium ditelluride (UTe₂), a superconductor with the desired electron pairing that was previously considered a strong candidate for topological superconductivity. Alas, measurements with the new microscope showed that UTe₂ doesn’t fit the bill.
“If UTe2 superconductivity did break time reversal and sustain a chiral state, then we would have imaged Majoranas and proven it is a topological superconductor,” says Davis. “But UTe2 does not break that symmetry.”
Despite this disappointment, Steven Kivelson, a theoretical physicist at Stanford University in the US who was not involved in the research, says that studying UTe₂’s superconducting state could still be useful. “Searching for topological superconductors is interesting in its own right,” he says.
While some physicists are sceptical that topological superconductors will deliver on their quantum computing potential, citing years of ambiguous data and unfulfilled claims, that scepticism doesn’t necessarily translate to disinterest. Even if such materials never lead to a working quantum computer, Kivelson believes understanding them is still essential. “One doesn’t need these sexy buzzwords to justify the importance of this work,” he says.
According to Davis, the value of the team’s work lies in the tool it introduces. The Andreev STM method, especially when combined with tip tuning and quasiparticle interference imaging, allows researchers to identify topological superconductors definitively. The technique also offers something more commonly-used bulk techniques cannot achieve: a real-space, high-resolution view of the superconductor’s pairing symmetry, including node imaging and phase variation across the material’s surface.
The team is now using its method to survey other candidate materials, including UPt₃, which Davis describes as “the most likely one” to show the right properties. “If we find one which has Majoranas on the surface, that will open the door to applications,” he says.
The “strategic objective”, Davis adds, would be to get away from trying to create Majorana modes in engineered systems such as nanowires layered with superconductors, as companies such as Microsoft and Nokia are doing. Finding an intrinsic topological superconductor would, he suggests, be simpler.
The research is published in Science.
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When Werner Heisenberg travelled to Helgoland in June 1925, he surely couldn’t have imagined that more than 300 researchers would make the same journey exactly a century later. But his development of the principles of quantum mechanics on the tiny North Sea island proved so significant that the crème de la crème of quantum physics, including four Nobel laureates, attended a five-day conference on Helgoland in June to mark the centenary of his breakthrough.
Just as Heisenberg had done, delegates travelled to the German archipelago by boat, leading one person to joke that if the ferry from Hamburg were to sink, “that’s basically quantum theory scuppered for a generation”. Fortunately, the vessel survived the four-hour trip up the river Elbe and 50 km out to sea – despite strong winds almost leading to a last-minute cancellation. The physicists returned in one piece too, meaning the future of quantum physics is safe.
These days Helgoland is a thriving tourist destination, offering beaches, bird-watching and boating, along with cafes, restaurants and shops selling luxury goods (the island benefits from being duty-free). But even 100 years ago it was a popular resort, especially for hay-fever sufferers like Heisenberg, who took a leave of absence from his post-doc under Max Born in Göttingen to seek refuge from a particularly bad bout of the illness on the windy and largely pollen-free island.
More than five years in the making, Helgoland 2025 was organized by Florian Marquardt and colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light and Yale University quantum physicist Jack Harris, who said he was “very happy” with how the meeting turned out. As well as the quartet of Nobel laureates – Alain Aspect, Serge Haroche, David Wineland and Anton Zeilinger – there were many eager and enthusiastic early-career physicists who will be the future stars of quantum physics.
When quantum physics began 100 years ago, only a handful of people were involved in the field. As well as Heisenberg and Born, there were the likes of Erwin Schrödinger, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Niels Bohr and Pascual Jordan. If WhatsApp had existed back then, the protagonists would have fitted into their own small group chat (perhaps called “The Quantum Apprentices”). But these days quantum physics is a far bigger endeavour.
Helgoland 2025 covered everything from the fundamentals of quantum mechanics to applied topics such as sensors and quantum computing.
With 31 lectures, five panel debates and more than 100 posters, Helgoland 2025 had sessions covering everything from the fundamentals of quantum mechanics and quantum information to applied topics such as sensors and quantum computing. In fact, Harris said in an after-dinner speech on the conference’s opening night in Hamburg that he and the organizing team could easily have “filled two or three solid programmes with people from whom we would have loved to hear”.
Harris’s big idea was to bring together theorists working on the foundational aspects of quantum mechanics with researchers applying those principles to quantum computing, sensing and communications. “[I hoped they] would enjoy talking to each other on an equal footing,” he told me after the meeting. “These topics have a lot of overlap, but that overlap isn’t always well-represented at conferences devoted to one or the other.”
In terms of foundational questions, speakers covered issues such as entanglement, superposition, non-locality, the meaning of measurement and the nature of information, particles, quantum states and randomness. Nicholas Gisin from the University of Geneva said physics is, at heart, all about extracting information from nature. Renato Renner from ETH Zurich discussed how to treat observers in quantum physics. Zeilinger argued that quantum states are states of knowledge – but, if so, do they exist only when measured?
Italian theorist and author Carlo Rovelli, who was constantly surrounded in the coffee breaks, gave a lecture on loop quantum gravity as a solution to marrying quantum physics with general relativity. In a talk on quantizing space–time, Juan Maldacena from the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton discussed information loss and black holes, saying that a “white” black hole the size of a bacterium would be as hot as the Sun and emit so much light we could see it with the naked eye.
Markus Aspelmeyer from the University of Vienna spoke about creating non-classical (i.e. quantum) sources of gravity in table-top experiments and tackled the prospect of gravitationally induced entanglement. Jun Ye from the University of Colorado, Boulder, talked about improving atomic clocks for fundamental physics. Bill Unruh from the University of British Columbia discussed the nature of particles, concluding that: “A particle is what a particle detector detects”.
It almost came as a relief when Gemma de les Coves from the Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona flashed up a slide joking : “I do not understand quantum mechanics.”
Discussing foundational topics might seem self-indulgent given the burgeoning (and financially lucrative) applications of quantum physics. But those basic questions are not only intriguing in their own right – they also help to attract newcomers into quantum physics. What’s more, practical matters like quantum computing, code breaking and signal detection are not just technical and engineering endeavours. “They hinge on our ability to understand those foundational questions,” says Harris.
In fact, plenty of practical applications were discussed at Helgoland. As Michelle Simmons from the University of New South Wales pointed out, the last 25 years have been a “golden age” for experimental quantum physics. “We now have the tools that allow us to manipulate the world at the very smallest length scales,” she said on the Physics World Weekly podcast. “We’re able for the first time to try and control quantum states and see if we can use them for different types of information encoding or for sensing.”
One presenter discussing applications was Jian-Wei Pan from the University of Science and Technology of China, who spoke about quantum computing and quantum communication across space, which relies on sustaining quantum entanglement over long distances and times. David Moore from Yale discussed some amazing practical experiments his group is doing using levitated, trapped silica microspheres as quantum sensors to detect what he called the “invisible” universe – neutrinos and perhaps even dark matter.
Nergis Mavalvala from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, meanwhile, reminded us that gravitational-wave detectors, such as LIGO, rely on quantum physics to tackle the problem of “shot noise”, which otherwise limits their performance. Nathalie de Leon from Princeton University, who admitted on the final day she was going a bit “stir crazy” on the island, discussed quantum sensing with diamond.
Helgoland 2025 proved that quantum physicists have much to shout about, but also highlighted the many challenges still lying in store. How can we move from systems with just a few quantum bits to hundreds or thousands? How can quantum error correction help make noisy quantum systems reliable? What will we do with an exponential speed-up in computing? Is there a clear border between quantum and classical physics – and, if so, where is it?
By cooping participants together on an island with such strong historical associations, Harris hopes that Helgoland 2025 will have catalyzed new thinking. “I got to meet a lot of people I had always wanted to meet and re-connect with folks I’d been out of touch with for a long time,” he said. “I had wonderful conversations that I don’t think would have happened anywhere else. It is these kinds of person-to-person connections that often make the biggest impact.”
Occasionally, though, the outside world did encroach on the meeting. To a round of applause, Rovelli said that physicists must keep working with Russian scientists, and warned of the dangers of demonizing others. Pan, who had to give his talk on a pre-recorded video, said it was “with much regret” that he was prevented from travelling to Helgoland from China. There were a few rumbles about the conference being sponsored in part by the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the Army Research Office.
Quantum physicists would also do well to find out more about the philosophy of science. Questions like the role of the observer, the nature of measurement, and the meaning of non-locality are central to quantum physics but are philosophical as much as scientific. Even knowing the philosophy relevant to the early years of quantum physics is important. As Elise Crull from the City University of New York said: “Physicists ignore this early philosophy at their peril”.
The conference ended with a debate, chaired by Tracy Northup from the University of Innsbruck, on the next 100 years of quantum physics, where panellists agreed that the field’s ongoing mysteries are what will sustain it. “When we teach quantum mechanics, we should not be hiding the open problems, which are what interest students,” said Lorenzo Maccone from the University of Pavia in Italy. “They enjoy hearing there’s no consensus on, say the Wigner’s friend paradox. They seem engaged [and it shows] physics is not something dead.”
The importance of global links in science was underlined too. “Big advances usually come from international collaboration or friendly competition,” said panellist Gerd Leuchs from the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light. “We should do everything we can to keep up collaboration. Scientists aren’t better people but they share a common language. Maintaining links across borders dampens violence.”
Leuchs also reminded the audience of the importance of scientists admitting they aren’t always right. “Scientists are often viewed as being arrogant, but we love to be proved wrong and we should teach people to enjoy being wrong,” he said. “If you want to be successful as a scientist, you have to be willing to change your mind. This is something that can be useful in the rest of society.”
I’ll leave the final word to Max Lock – a postdoc from the University of Vienna – who is part of a new generation of quantum physicists who have grown up with the weird but entirely self-consistent world of quantum physics. Reflecting on what happened at Helgoland, Lock said he was struck most by the contrast between what was being celebrated and the celebration itself.
“Heisenberg was an audacious 23-year-old whose insight spurred on a community of young and revolutionary thinkers,” he remarked. “With the utmost respect for the many years of experience and achievements that we saw on the stage, I’m quite sure that if there’s another revolution around the corner, it’ll come from the young members of the audience who are ready to turn the world upside down again.”
This article forms part of Physics World‘s contribution to the 2025 International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (IYQ), which aims to raise global awareness of quantum physics and its applications.
Stayed tuned to Physics World and our international partners throughout the year for more coverage of the IYQ.
Find out more on our quantum channel.
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British smallsat maker Open Cosmos has acquired Connected, a Portuguese startup developing 5G narrowband connectivity payloads for satellites.
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French launch vehicle startup Latitude has signed a deal to expand into a larger factory as the company works towards a first launch as soon as next year.
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Structured as Luno A and Luno B, the five-year, indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contracts carry a combined ceiling of $490 million
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A DARPA official said the agency canceled a space nuclear propulsion project it was jointly developing with NASA in part because the effort was overtaken by lower launch costs.
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The global pivot toward government-backed satellite programs is redefining global EO strategies, shifting demand toward defense-grade, sovereign capabilities
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Research that leverages space to develop treatments for blindness, cancer, and Parkinson’s disease is jeopardized by the $6.1 billion NASA budget cuts recently announced for 2026 by President Trump. The cuts to the International Space Station (ISS), forecasted to be $508 million, halt space research and development momentum, discourage investors, impede growth of the space […]
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